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GENERAL REVISION
I/ SPELLING
Nouns, verbs and adjectives can have the
following endings :
Noun+ s/es (plural)
Books, ideas, matches
Verb+ s/es (after he, she, it)
Works, enjoys, washes
Verb+ ing
Working, enjoying, washing
Verb+ ed
Worked, enjoyed, washed
Adjective+ er (comparative)
Cheaper, quicker, brighter
Adjective+ est (superlative)
Cheapest, quickest, brightest
Adjective+ ly (adverb)
Cheaply, quickly, brightly
When we use these endings, there are sometimes
changes in spelling:
* Nouns
and verbs +s/ es
The ending is (es) when the word
ends in s, ss, sh, ch, x.
Example: bus/ buses miss/ misses wash/ washes match/ matches box/ boxes
* words
ending in (y) like baby, carry, easy:
if a word ends in a consonant + (by,
ry, sy, vy, …):
(Y) changes to (ie) before the ending (s):
Baby/ babies story/ stories try/ tries country/ countries
(Y) changes to (i) before the ending (ed):
Hurry/ hurried study/studied apply/ applied
(Y) changes to (i) before the endings (er and
est)
Easy/ easier, easiest lucky/ luckier, luckiest
(Y) changes to (i) before the ending (ly)
Easy/ easily heavy/ heavily
* (Y)
does not change before (ing): hurriying tryinf
* (Y)
does not change if the word ends in a vowel + y (ay, ey, oy, uy)
An exception is : day/ daily, lay/ laid say/ said
Doubling consonants: Sometimes, a word ends in
a vowel + a consonant like in:
Stop, plan, wet, thin, slip, prefer, regret
Before the endings (ing, ed, er, est), we
double the consonant:
Stop_stopped, stopping; thin_ thinner, thinnest.
BUT we do not double (y) or (w) at the
end of words: stay_stayed; grow_
growing.
II/SYLLABLE DIVISION/
SOME RULES
* one
syllable word is never divides: example: ill
* when
the word has a prefix, divide the word between the root and the prefix:
eg: mis/use
* when
the word has a suffix, divide between the root and the suffix: fee/ly
* when
two consonants come between two vowels, the word is divided after the
first consonant: of/ten
* when
a consonant comes between two vowels, the word is divided before the
consonant: mu/sic
* when
two vowels come together and are pronounced separately, the word is
divided between the two vowels: radi/o
* when
a vowel is sounded alone in a word, it forms a syllable: e/vent
III/ STRESS : a stressed syllable is part of a
word that is pronounced longer and louder than the other parts.
* Most
of 2 syllabic words are stressed on the first syllable if it is not a
prefix.
Example: open, winter precious
BUT : begin, forget, believe, resume, occur, alarm, result, again, perhaps, event, advice
* Most
of 3 syllabic words are stressed on the first syllable of the root:
Example: difficult, organise, sensitive
BUT: remember together
professor
All words ending in ‘ion’ are stressed on the
syllable before the last:
Example: division, examination, tradition, revolution, illusion
IV/ REPORTED SPEECH
1/ REPORTED STATEMENTS:
When the reporting verb is in the present,
there is no change in tense:
“ I’m a teacher.” She says
that she is a teacher. Here, we’ve used the present simple in both sentences
because the reporting verb (say) is in the present.
BUT: When the reporting verb is in the past,
there are always corresponding tenses to the ones used in the direct speech
simply because we don’t report what happens but what happened.
Example:
“I am a teacher”. She said
that she was a teacher.
Present simple
Past simple
Present continuous
Past continuous
Present perfect simple
Past perfect simple
Present perfect continuous
Past perfect continuous
Past simple
Past perfect
Past continuous
Past perfect continuous
Past perfect
Past perfect (no possible change)
Past perfect continuous
Past perfect continuous (no possible change)
Other verb forms also change:
will
Would
can
Could
must
Had to
shall
Should
may
Might
Time and place references:
now
then
today
That day
here
There
this
That
tomorrow
The following day, the next day, the day
after
Next week
The following week, the next week, the week
after
yesterday
The previous day, the day before
Last week
The previous week, the week before
A week ago
A week before
tonight
That night
Last Sunday
The previous Sunday, the Sunday before
2/ REPORTED QUESTIONS
a) “WH” QUESTIONS:
After the reporting verb, we :
first, rewrite the “wh” word
Second: rewrite the subject
Third: rewrite the verb in the corresponding tense if the reporting verb
is in the past.
b)
“YES/
NO” QUESTIONS:
After the reporting verb, we: first:
write if or whether
Second:
write the subject
Third: write the verb in the corresponding tense.
3/ REPORTED INSTRUCTIONS AND REQUESTS/
ORDERS
a)
Affirmative commands:
to + STEM
b)
Negative commands: not
to + STEM
V/ PASSIVE TENSES
* Present
Simple : is or are + past participle
Eg: Computers are shipped to many
countries.
* Present
Continuous: is/are + being + past participle
The food is being prepared.
* Past Simple: was/ were + past
participle
Eg: The package was delivered
yesterday.
* Past
continuous : was/ were + being +
past participle
Eg: The house was being painted when
I arrived.
* Present
Perfect Simple : has/ have + been + past participle
Eg: Over 20 models have been
produced.
* Past
Perfect Simple: had + been + past participle
Eg: We had been given visas for
three months.
* Modals
(can, may…) modal + be + past participle
Eg: The computer can be used.
VI/ CONDIRIONAL
SENTENCES
1/ IF CLAUSES
TYPE ONE: if + Present Simple, Future
Eg: If you don’t go to the doctor soon, the
problem will get worse.
TYPE TWO: if
+ Past Simple, would + infinitive
Eg: If I had time, I would call him.
TYPE THREE: if + Past Perfect, would have +
past participle
Eg: If I hadn’t called, I wouldn’t have known
about the meeting.
2/ THE USE OF “UNLESS”
Unless + affirmative verb is similar to if +
negative verb.
Eg: unless I hurry, I will miss the bus = If I
don’t hurry, I will miss the bus.
VII/ PRONUNCIATION OF
THE FINAL “s”
* The
final “s” is pronounced /s/ after: t, p, k, f, th( ث)
* The
final “s” is pronounced /z/ after: d, b, g, m, n, r, v, l, th (ذ)
* The
final “s” is pronounced /iz/ after: sh, ch, s, z, ge, dge
VIII/ PRONUNCIATION OF
FINAL “ed”
* The
final “ed” is pronounced /id/ after: t, d
* The
final “ed” is pronounced /d/ after: b, g, v, ge, dge, z, m, n, w, l, r, y,
th
* The
final “ed” is pronounced /t/ after: p, k, f, sh, ch.
IX/
PLURAL
General rule: singular + s
(girl__girls)
* nouns
ending in s, z, x, sh, ch: add es (box__boxes)
* nouns
ending in a consonant + y: y changes to (i) and add es (spy__spies)
* nouns
ending in f/ fe: change f/fe to (v) and add es (life__lives)
X/ RELATIVE CLAUSES
WHO/ WHICH/ THAT: when subject of
the relative clause, I cannot omit them.
Eg: We know a lot of people who live in London. Here, “ who” is subject and it can’t
be omitted.
When these relative pronouns are
object of the relative clause, they can be
omitted.
Eg: The woman (who) I wanted to see
was away on vacation. Here, “who” is object and it can be omitted.
WHOSE is used instead of his, her,
their
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